Who Were the Vestal Virgins

The Vestal Virgins were venerated priestesses of Vesta, the Roman goddess of the hearth fire  (full title: Vesta publica populi Romani Quiritium),  and the guardians of the luck of Rome who could intervene on behalf of those in trouble. They prepared the mola salsa that was used in all state sacrifices. Originally, there were 2, then 4 (in Plutarchs time), and then 6 Vestal Virgins. They were proceeded by lictors, who carried the rods and ax that could be used to inflict punishments on the people, if necessary. Even today we believe that our  vestal Virgins  can root runaway slaves to the spot by a spell, provided the slaves have not left Rome.—Pliny the Elder, Natural History, Book XXVIII, 13. Selection of the Vestal Virgins The first Vestal was taken from her parents as though she had been captured in war, and led by the hand. It has been thought that the Vestal Virgins wore their hair in the seni crines style of brides where the six parts to be braided and piled up were separated by a spear. This first Vestal may have been taken by the second of 7 kings of Rome Numa Pomilius  (or, possibly, Romulus, the first king and founder of Rome), according to the 2nd century A.D. Roman antiquarian Aulus Gellius (A.D. 123-170). According to Plutarch, in his life of Numa, there were originally two Vestals, and then 2 pairs under Servius Tullius named Gegania and Verenia, Cannulae and Tarpeia, representing the Romans and the Sabines. A third pair was formed when a third tribe was added to Rome. Since Romulus is credited with creating the three tribes this is problematic. Koptev says that an ancient grammarian, Festus says the six Vestals represented a division into three primary and three secondary Vestals, one of each for each tribe. Their term as priestesses of the goddess Vesta was 30 years, after which they were free to leave and marry. Most Vestal Virgins preferred to remain single after retirement. Before that, they had to maintain chastity or face a frightening death. The Perfection of the Vestal Virgin Girls from the ages of 6-10, originally from patrician, and later, from any freeborn family, were eligible to become Vestals (sacerdotes Vestales). They may have originally represented the daughters of the chief/priest, according to William Warde Fowler in The Roman Festivals of the Period of the Republic (1899). Besides aristocratic birth, vestals had to meet certain criteria assuring their perfection, including being free of bodily imperfection and having living parents. From those offered, the selections were made by lot. In exchange for a commitment of 30 years (10 in training, 10 in service, and 10 training others) and a vow of chastity, Vestals were emancipated, and so, free to administer their own affairs without a guardian (that is, they were free of their fathers potestas), given honor, the right to make a will, luxurious accommodations at state expense, and when they went out lictors carrying rods proceeded them. They wore distinctive dress and probably seni crines, the hai rstyle of a Roman bride. The Vestals are accompanied by three togate attendants, of whom the first and last are lictors, each carrying the two rods that in this period apparently distinguish the lictores curiatii assigned to the service of the priests. They wear mantles closely wrapped and over their heads the suffibulum, the white head-covering fastened under the chin which appears in other reliefs representing the Vestal Virgins. The first four carry sacred objects: a small spherical incense jar, a simpulum (?), and two large rectangular objects, possibly tablets containing the sacred ritual.Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art, by Inez Scott Ryberg; Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, Vol. 22, Rites of the State Religion in Roman Art (1955); p. 41. Special privileges were granted the Vestal Virgins. According to Burial customs and the pollution of death in ancient Rome: procedures and paradoxes, by Francois Retief and Louise P. Cilliers,  it was required that people be buried outside the city (beyond the Pomoerium) except for a privileged few that included the vestals. The Functions of the Vestals The Vestals chief function was the preservation of an undying fire (ignis inextinctus) in the shrine of Vesta, goddess of the hearth, but they had other functions as well. On May 15, the Vestals threw straw figurines (Argei) into the Tiber. At the beginning of the June Vestalia festival, the inner sanctum (penus) of the circular shrine to Vesta, in the forum Romanum, was opened for women to bring offerings; otherwise, it was closed to all but the Vestals and the Pontifex Maximus. The Vestals made holy cakes (mola salsa) for the Vestalia, according to ritual prescriptions, from special salt, water, and grain. On the last day of the festival, the temple was ritually cleansed. The Vestals also kept wills and participated in ceremonies. The last known chief Vestal (vestalis maxima) was Coelia Concordia in A.D. 380. The cult ended in 394. Control Over and Punishment of the Vestal Virgins The Vestals werent the only priestly office Numa Pompilius instituted. Among others, he created the office of Pontifex Maximus to preside over rites, prescribe rules for public ceremony, and watch over the Vestals. It was the Pontifex task to administer their punishment. For some offenses, a Vestal might be whipped, but if the sacred fire went out, it proved a Vestal was impure. Her impurity threatened the safety of Rome. A Vestal who lost her virginity was buried alive in the Campus Sceleratus (near the Colline gate) amid solemn ritual. The Vestal was brought to steps leading down to a room with food, a bed, and a lamp. After her descent, the steps were removed and dirt heaped on the entrance to the room. There she was left to die. Virginity of the Vestal The reasons behind the virginal status of the Vestals have been scrutinized by classicists and anthropologists. The Vestals collective virginity may have been a form of binding magic preserving the safety of Rome. As long as it remains intact, Rome would remain safe. Should a Vestal be unchaste, her brutal ritual sacrifice would punish not only her but whatever might be polluting Rome. Should a Vestal become ill, she must be tended by a married woman outside the sacred area (aedes Vesta), according to Holt N. Parker, citing Pliny 7.19.1. From Why Were The Vestals Virgins? Or The Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State, Holt N. Parker writes: Contagious magic, on the other hand, is metonymic or synecdochic: The part is to the whole as the image is to the represented object. The Vestal represents not only the idealized role of Woman -- a fusion of the archetypal roles of la Vergine and la Mamma into the figure of la Madonna -- but also the citizen body as a whole....A Roman woman existed legally only in relation to a man. A womans legal status was based entirely on this fact. The act of freeing a Vestal from any man so that she was free to incarnate all men removed her from all conventional classifications. Thus she was unmarried and so not a wife; a virgin and so not a mother; she was outside patria potestas and so not a daughter; she underwent no emancipatio, no coemptio and so not a ward. Sources Why Were The Vestals Virgins? Or The Chastity of Women and the Safety of the Roman State, by Holt N. Parker.  American Journal of Philology  125.4 (2004) 563-601.Dictionary of Roman Religion, by Leslie and Roy Adkins.Francois Retief and Louise P. Cilliers,  Burial customs and the pollution of death in ancient Rome: procedures and paradoxes,  Acta Theologica, Vol.26:2 2006Three Brothers at the Head of Archaic Rome: The King and His Consuls, by Alexandr Koptev;  Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte, Vol. 54, No. 4 (2005), pp. 382-423.

Libya s Transition Of The Arab Uprising Essay - 1587 Words

I. Introduction Just a few years ago, Libya had one of the highest standards of living of any African country. Now Libya is in political turmoil with multiple groups and governments trying to gain power. In 1969, Muammar Gaddafi seized power of Libya by a military coup. The authoritarian ruler stayed in power for four decades until 2011 when he was killed in an armed rebellion assisted by Western military intervention. The UN intervened in Libya for human rights reasons, not to facilitate a regime change. Shortly after Gaddafi was killed, foreign assistance disappeared leaving Libya fragile and hostile. The Libyan civil war began as a part of the Arab uprising, with two main opposing forces, the government and rebel militias. The military groups that had once fought to topple Gaddafi began to turn on each other in an attempt to gain power and oil wealth. Libya is now more ideologically divided than ever and in need of a plan to revive its nation. Libya’s transition to a democracy will involve many steps, considering its current lack of any centralized government. A multidimensional approach including peacekeeping, nation building, and developmental assistance is likely to have the most success in repairing Libya’s government. Through close monitoring, the Libyan government could be a functioning democracy in as little as five years. II. Past Democratic Injustices For 42 years, Libya was a military dictatorship ruled by Muammar Gaddafi. This type of government destroyed anyShow MoreRelatedThe Successes and Failures of the Mission1135 Words   |  5 PagesWithin the context of the Arab Spring, the case of Libya is original because of two following reasons: (1) the struggle for power between citizens and the elite group , and (2) more importantly, Libya was the first country that the United Nations had enforced the law of intervention, spearheaded by the U.S. and their allies. 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A Letter from Buddha to his Disciple Free Essays

You have asked of me for help in how to heal your father of his sickness. I appreciate that your father is a good and righteous man and you are blessed to have had a good man for a father. But I cannot take away his pain. We will write a custom essay sample on A Letter from Buddha to his Disciple or any similar topic only for you Order Now That is something that no one can really do for if there is anything that is constant in every person’s life, it is suffering. Life is suffering. That is one of the noble truths. Learn this and it can just be the very thing that would bring you, your family, and even your father enlightenment. Also remember that sorcery and miracles promised by magicians will do you no good for it is against the Laws of Karma and can only bring harm. I have seen the suffering and ugliness caused by disease and the sadness caused by man’s mortality. (Moore-Brooder, 2005, p. 499) Truly if one would compare the life I led with my family one would say I am truly favored by the gods. When I was young I lived a life full of pleasures and worldly vices. But it can be a paradox on how one’s blessings are defined by pain and suffering. It was only after bearing witness to the many instances and forms of suffering, that I sought fulfillment of my existence and ultimately, enlightenment. Man’s life is incomplete without pain. Even from the time of birth both mother and child experience pain. But once one has transcended pain, he becomes a new man and thus, reborn. I give you my story of the mother Gotami-tissa whose son succumbed to disease. (Morgan, 1956, p. 23) She went from door to door seeking a miracle that would bring back her son’s life continually being told that such a thing was impossible. She came to me for help, wringing her hands and prostrating herself so that I may bring her son back to life. I asked her for mustard seeds. Not just any ordinary mustard seed, but she must collect seeds that came from homes that remained untouched by grief and death. Later on she came back to me and confessed that she was unable to get any seed for all the homes she visited have experienced death. Death is not a circumstance special to just one person. It is unavoidable and constant. By understanding this, she was cured of her grief and has been able to continue living as a new woman. In my teachings I have continually mentioned man’s mortality, his impermanence. Nothing on earth is permanent other than death. Its stealth is legendary and one never really knows when it will come. I urge you my son, to practice dharma in order that your life may be fulfilled and protected from bad karma. For if you do no wrong, why should there be consequences? Today we see many people doing everything within their power to attain their ambition. Some may perhaps reason out â€Å"it is not so wrong† but truly, if one would like to live on the side of right, one has to choose definitely between right or wrong without compromise. Live in freedom and self-mastery to fully enjoy the gift that is life. Bad things are constant. Suffering is constant. The only thing you can really control and gain mastery of is yourself. Learn to take the middle path in life for it is the way to happiness. Know that a life of extremes is bad and will ultimately bring more suffering. I exhort you to learn to look within yourself and develop an understanding and acceptance of what goes on around you. Aiming to change others can sometimes be a futile practice. I myself can teach what I have learned and woken up to realize, yet true enlightenment can only come from within a person himself. Some may perhaps say, I will seek enlightenment later or I have tried to understand life before but failed. But past failure is past and the future is uncertain in many ways. Indeed, it can happen that tomorrow or later in the day may be all of what remains of the future. Seek enlightenment now, and cherish the moment. So when death comes, you do not regret nor do you have fear of the next life for you die with knowledge of having lived not just a good life, but a righteous one. – Buddha References Morgan, K. W. (Ed. ). (1956). The Path of the Buddha Buddhism Interpreted by Buddhists. New York: Ronald Press. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=5883323 Moore-Bruder. (2005). Philosophy: The Power of Ideas, Sixth Edition Ohio: McGraw-Hill Carrithers, M. (2001). The Buddha: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Retrieved September 23, 2007, from Questia database: http://www. questia. com/PM. qst? a=od=101647070 How to cite A Letter from Buddha to his Disciple, Papers

A Great Composer Essay Example For Students

A Great Composer Essay Only one man could claim the title as probably the greatest composer in American history for writing so many unforgettable works: Aaron Copland. He lived a life inspired by many things as well as inspiring people all across the nation, and it really led to the opposite of being drawn into himself, as he described in the quote above. He was born in Brooklyn, New York on November 14 in 1900. He was the youngest of five children to Sarah and Harris Copland. A musical spark came out in Copland already at the age of 11 as he began piano lessons with his sister. His musical talents needed tutoring from a higher level of teaching and so he studied with a professional piano teacher, Ludwig Wolfsohn, at age 14. Copland said later, No one ever connected music with my family. The idea was entirely original with me. And unfortunately the idea occurred to me seriously only at 13 or thereaboutswhich is rather late for a musician to get started, (Charles Moritz 190). He graduated in 1918 and was able to devote all his time to writing and composing music. Wanting to further his knowledge in music, he was taught harmony and counterpoint by Rubin Goldmark. Understandably, the two men shared different views and Goldmark completely disagreed with Coplands styles, so to demonstrate his own stubbornness, Copland came back to Goldmark with a piece he wrote entitled The Cat and The Mouse, (Charles Moritz 191). Copland would then attend the newly established American Conservatory at Fontainebleau in Paris, and he was honored in being the first American student of the amazing teacher, Nadia Boulanger. After three years he returned to New York without any knowledge of how a composer got his works published or performed, nor how he planned on keeping himself financially stable. Copland ended his troubling when he was given a grant of from two Guggenheim Fellowships, and some women who found an interest in his compositions that gave him some donations so he could devote all his time to writing. His first major work upon returning to America was Symphony for Organ and Orchestra which he wrote just for the few performances of Nadia Boulanger; the first one in Carnegie Hall in 1925 and another in Boston. As the twenties roared on, Copland began to show how his musical career would truly follow the ever-changing style of America. During the 1920s, Aaron Copland went with the trend and experimented with jazz styles in his music, which proved to be extraordinary in the views of many. His choice for other pieces came through modern music about which he once said, I just happened upon it in the natural course of my musical exploration. This was apparent in the way he would use ideals of Neoclassicism in his Piano Variations. Copland then hit a downfall in about 1936. He wrote a few works which were harder to perform and not taken in by many audiences due to the use of much more advanced techniques which were uncommon for the time. Copland knew a change had to be made because he quickly saw how many composers were working themselves into a vacuum, so he would follow a new path of the more simplistic American way for much of his life. This simple to understand type of writing is what brought audiences back and made Aaron Copland great. He started writing functional music like The Second Hurricane and The Outdoor Adventure for kids, as well as Of Mice and Men, Or Town, North Star, and The Red Pony for movies; Music For Radio for radio; and a few American folk songs. .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .postImageUrl , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:hover , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:visited , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:active { border:0!important; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:active , .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uc1ea49d5aa056672e83244402f421b9e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Chinese Takeaway Performed by Anna Yen EssayHe worked specifically with western themes in three major pieces, Rodeo (obvious Western setting), Billy the Kid (another setting in the farther west), and the ever so famous Appalachian Spring (set in Pennsylvania when it was still Americas frontier). Appalachian Spring proves how well connected Copland was with the United States as it has lasted for generations and is still herd today, but it was really an original shakers folk song called Simple Gifts. He continued a process of American influence with a few famous works from 12 Emily Dickinson poems, and from texts by Edwin Arlington Robinson, Ezra Pound, and E. E. Cummings. He did films based on late 19th century New York in a contemporary state of being. Copland spread his American affiliation outside the U. S. to include works like El Salon Mexico and Danzon Cubano related to the Northern Hemisphere. Aaron Copland would show leadership and have to prove his qualities in different situations. At about 1938, Copland became president of the American Composers Alliance and that was just the start to many organizations he would lead, help create, or partake in, such as being the head of the composition department at the Berkshire Music Center in 1940-1965. In 1946 he was also elected member of ASCAP and in 1948 he became the Director of the League of Composers. It was around 1953, and in the midst of an anticommunist craze, in which Senator Joseph McCarthy called Aaron Copland forth to be interrogated about his past relations with German composer Hanns Eisler and with U. S. political organizations that supported labor leaders Harry Bridges and Earl Browder (Liberty, Equality, Power 856). Copland proved to be a difficult witness and deflected the senators questions with ingenious answers, so that he was never called back by McCarthy. After 1960, he bought Rock Hill in the town of Cortlandt and began a slow decline in his musical performances and works. About 1965 Copland participated in a public television series called Music in the Twenties. Copland had fulfilled a life of endless achievements, as he had great impacts in promoting interests of American composers through organizations such as Copland-Sessions Concerts, American Festival of Contemporary Music, and American Composers Alliance. He was continually given many awards, like an Academy Award nomination for film score of North Star, an Academy Award for best original musical score in The Heiress, the Pulitzer Prize in music, the New York Music Critics Circle Award for Appalachian Spring, the Gold Medal of the American Academy Institute of Arts and Letters, the MacDowell Colony Medal of Honor, winning the RCA Victor Composer Competition with Dance Symphony, the Presidential Medal of Freedom (Americas top civilian honor), the Kennedy Center Honors, the Congressional Medal of Honor, the National Medal of Arts (given to him by President Reagan), the Commanders Cross of the Order of Merit from West Germany, the Howland Memorial Medal from Yale University, and the Department of Music at Queens College of the City University of New York was renamed Aaron Copland School of Music. After 1970, Copland continued lecturing and some conducting as he gradually stopped composing. He died at Phelps Memorial Hospital in Tarrytown , New York on December 2 after 90 years of musical genius and American glory. His ashes were scattered at Tanglewood, but the legend of Aaron Copland resides in us all forever.